Hate as a Social Phenomenon
Fischer, A., Halperin, E., Canetti, D., & Jasini, A. (2018). Why we hate. Emotion Review, 10(4), 309-320.
Fischer et al. (2018), describe hate as a social phenomenon whose intention is to eliminate the target. The article terms hate as a complex phenomenon for empirical investigation. The study interviewed 40 Israelis regarding a hatred event they ever experienced who responded with negative experiences. However, this was ironic since the nation once focused to eliminate the Palestinians. This reflects the inappropriateness of hate and the unwillingness to acknowledge the feeling. Characteristics of hate include anger, moral disgust, and contempt. Hate is perceived as a short term emotion and long-term sentiment. The authors used figures to illustrate different tents and overlap of appraisals, action tendencies, and characteristics of anger.
Ittegaq, M., Abwao, M., Baines, A., Belmas, G., Kamboh, S., & Figueroa, E. (2021). A pandemic of hate: Social representations of COVID-19 in the media.
The article features hate as a social phenomenon. This follows its intensification following the onset of Covid-19 pandemic which initiated racial discrimination. The former U.S. description of China as the origin of the pandemic was criticized as racially offensive and xenophobic. This illustrates how hate can be expressed through confessions. The authors assert that the pandemic was widely used to express hate towards the Chinese community leading to hate crimes (Ittegaq et al., 2021). These included stereotypes and marginalized verbal attacks towards the community. The media also initiates hate through their tone for engagement – socially and politically during unprecedented times. Therefore, hate is a social phenomenon which can be instituted through various influences.
Jin, W., Xiang, Y., & Lei, M. (2017). The deeper the love, the deeper the hate. 8
The article highlights a significant relationship between love and hate as both emotional psyches. While the study analyzes both virtues simultaneously, hate is termed as negative emotion which is motivated by personal emotion. The methodology involved 30 men and 29 women of average age of 20.2 years (Jin, Xian & Lei, 2017). The participants provided written informed consent and were rewarded for participation. The measures through ANOVA revealed high level of hate following a negative event manipulation. Romantic hate illuminates through romantic jealousy which reflects fear and anger. Future research should explore whether relationship status can predict hate feelings using experimental paradigm.
Laaksonen, S. M., Haapoja, J., Kinnunen, T., Nelimarkka, M., & Pöyhtäri, R. (2020). The datafication of hate: expectations and challenges in automated hate speech monitoring. Frontiers in big Data, 3.
The article cites hate as a social phenomenon whereby hate speech resonates as a technical problem. Hate associates with discrimination that targets specific groups especially the minority which creates enmity. Laaksonen et al. (2020), assert that debate over hate in the European context revolves around concepts of religion, multiculturalism, ethnicity, and nationalism. Unfortunately, there is no legislation to regulate cases of hate speech despite the cognizant escalation of this virtue in politics, religions, and other social settings. The authors suggest that future research uses hate speech recognition models that consider contextual factors that relate to hate speech. Besides, the monitoring system for toxic and hate speech should be long-term with iterative approach towards its enhancement.
Navarro, J. I., Marchena, E., & Menacho, I. (2013). The psychology of hatred. The Open Criminology Journal, 6(1).
The article describes hatred as an extreme emotional dislike or emotional feeling against the object of hate which can lead to extreme behaviors such as murder, violence, and war. The authors analyzed the development of hatred and its relationship to anger and violence and perceive hate as a personal emotion. The hater perceives the object as evil, dangerous, and emotional which intensifies their negative perception of them (Navarro, Marchena & Menacho, 2013). The authors assert that hate is characterized by the need to consistently devalue the victim. Figures were used to illustrate the development of hate. Hate is prompted by one’s experience with the object, although it can be shared. For instance, a religious group that devalues others’ faith and beliefs.
Paz, M. A., Montero-Diaz, J., & Moreno-Delgado, A., (2020). Hate speech: A systematized review. 1-12.
The article analyzed papers on hate speech in communication and legal studies found in Web of Science. The paper purposed to assess the most relevant contributions on hate speech. In this regard, the authors regarded hate as a social phenomenon that is geared by social groups. The article used a systematized literature review methodology while adopting the SALSA framework (Paz et al., 2020). The factors to consider in facilitating the integration of these studies include acknowledging the media influence, subject matter of discourse, environment, and novelty in the overall panorama. Future research should analyze the hate speech legislation in every country and the extent to which it is acknowledge in the media companies.
Tontodimamma, A., Nissi, E., Sarra, A., & Fontanella, L. (2021). Thirty years of research into hate speech: topics of interest and their evolution. Scientometrics, 126(1), 157-179.
The study defines hate as a social phenomenon whereby negative perceptions express on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion, and nationality. When a certain group of people develop hate towards another, hate speech results especially through the social media. The study extracts data from Scopus database using bibliometric measures, topic modelling, and mapping knowledge tools. The search terms included ‘abusive language’, ‘hate speech’, ‘offensive discourse’, and ‘denigratory language’ among others (Tontodimamma et al., 2021). The authors applied the Latent Dirichet Allocation tool to mine relevant topics. Future research should analyze the procedures of online hate spread and investigate the tools that effectively combat this menace.
Ferran, V., Í. (2021). Hate: Toward a Four-Types Model. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 1-19.
Ferran discusses hate in its main typologies and terms it as a sentiment. The psychological and philosophical typologies prescribe hate as a combination of negative attitudes. The article also analyses the developmental history of hate and as a sentiment, it comprises negative events. Ferran hypothesized that hate is reactivated upon remembrance, thoughts, and imagination about the hate object. The variables of the study were replaceability/irreplaceability and determinacy/indeterminacy developed on the difference between focus and target (Ferran, 2021). The study highlighted four types of hate which are ideological, normative, malicious, and retributive. The author directs future research to address different moral issues concerning hate.
Wright, Z., (2016). Hate crimes: Clarification from emotion theory and psychological research. Journal of Islamic and near Eastern law, 15(1), 54-70.
Wright features hate as a social phenomenon and a crime that is motivated by differences in social parameters, in this context religion. Hate crimes are legally punished based on the motive which diverts the legit intention to eliminate this menace in the society. The study asserts that hate should be perceived as a crime since it is motivated by the hater’s perceived membership to a specific group (Wright, Z., (2016). This humiliates the victim’s rights to belong to other social groups. Wright discusses criticisms of hate crime which include the definition of hate crime as flawed, hence complicating the justification to sentence an offender.
Ziaulhaq, M. (2021). Hate Studies: The Urgency and Its Developments in the Perspective of Religious Studies. ARISTO, 9(2), 375-395.
The article featured the psychology of hatred in the context of religious studies. The study and described hatred as an independent field of study called the Hate study. The study acknowledges hatred as a social phenomenon that ignites vices such as terrorism, massacres, and genocide. For instance, hatred among UK students is motivated by racial prejudice whereby international students face repeated incidents of hatred (Ziaulhaq, 2021). The study used a qualitative approach to produce descriptive data in oral or written words from observers. The results reveal that hatred develops progressively and enforced by sadism and envy. Emotions are indefinite, but anger without hatred is a constructive emotion.
